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A one-stop resource for both researchers and development engineers, this comprehensive handbook serves as a daily reference, replacing heaps of individual papers. This second edition features twenty percent more content with new chapters on battery characterization, process technology, failure mechanisms and method development, plus updated information on classic batteries as well as entirely new results on advanced approaches. The authors, from such leading institutions as the US National Labs and from companies such as Panasonic and Sanyo, present a balanced view on battery research and large-scale applications. They follow a distinctly materials-oriented route through the entire field of battery research, thus allowing readers to quickly find the information on the particular materials system relevant to their research.
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Table of Contents
Related Titles
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication Page
Preface to the Second Edition of the Handbook of Battery Materials
List of Contributors
Part I: Fundamentals and General Aspects of Electrochemical Energy Storage
Chapter 1: Thermodynamics and Mechanistics
1.1 Electrochemical Power Sources
1.2 Electrochemical Fundamentals
1.3 Thermodynamics
1.4 Criteria for the Judgment of Batteries
References
Chapter 2: Practical Batteries
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Alkaline-Manganese Batteries
2.3 Nickel–Cadmium Batteries
2.4 Nickel–MH Batteries
2.5 Lithium Primary Batteries
2.6 Coin-Type Lithium Secondary Batteries
2.7 Lithium-Ion Batteries
2.8 Secondary Lithium Batteries with Metal Anodes
References
Further Reading
Part II: Materials for Aqueous Electrolyte Batteries
Chapter 3: Structural Chemistry of Manganese Dioxide and Related Compounds
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Tunnel Structures
3.3 Layer Structures
3.4 Reduced Manganese Oxides
3.5 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter 4: Electrochemistry of Manganese Oxides
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Electrochemical Properties of EMD
4.3 Physical Properties and Chemical Composition of EMD
4.4 Conversion of EMD to LiMnO2 or LiMn2O4 for Rechargeable Li Batteries
4.5 Discharge Curves of EMD Alkaline Cells (AA and AAA Cells)
References
Further Reading
Chapter 5: Nickel Hydroxides
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nickel Hydroxide Battery Electrodes
5.3 Solid-State Chemistry of Nickel Hydroxides
5.4 Electrochemical Reactions
References
Chapter 6: Lead Oxides
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lead/Oxygen Compounds
6.3 The Thermodynamic Situation
6.4 PbO2 as Active Material in Lead–Acid Batteries
6.5 Passivation of Lead by Its Oxides
6.6 Ageing Effects
References
Further Reading
Chapter 7: Bromine-Storage Materials
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Possibilities for Bromine Storage
7.3 Physical Properties of the Bromine Storage Phase
7.4 Analytical Study of a Battery Charge Cycle
7.5 Safety, Physiological Aspects, and Recycling
References
Chapter 8: Metallic Negatives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Overview
8.3 Battery Anodes (‘Negatives’)
References
Chapter 9: Metal Hydride Electrodes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Theory and Basic Principles
9.3 Metal Hydride–Nickel Batteries
9.4 Super-Stoichiometric AB5+x Alloys
9.5 AB2 Hydride Electrodes
9.6 XAS Studies of Alloy Electrode Materials
9.7 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
Further Reading
Chapter 10: Carbons
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Physicochemical Properties of Carbon Materials
10.3 Electrochemical Behavior
10.4 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 11: Separators
11.1 General Principles
11.2 Separators for Lead–Acid Storage Batteries
11.3 Separators for Alkaline Storage Batteries
Acknowledgments
References
Part III: Materials for Alkali Metal Batteries
Chapter 12: Lithium Intercalation Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries
12.1 Introduction
12.2 History of Lithium-Ion Batteries
12.3 Lithium-Ion Battery Electrodes
12.4 Layered Metal Oxide Cathodes
12.5 Layered LiCoO2
12.6 Layered LiNiO2
12.7 Layered LiMnO2
12.8 Li[Li1/3Mn2/3]O2 - LiMO2 Solid Solutions
12.9 Other Layered Oxides
12.10 Spinel Oxide Cathodes
12.11 Spinel LiMn2O4
12.12 5 V Spinel Oxides
12.13 Other Spinel Oxides
12.14 Polyanion-Containing Cathodes
12.15 Phospho-Olivine LiMPO4
12.16 Silicate Li2MSiO4
12.17 Other Polyanion-Containing Cathodes
12.18 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 13: Rechargeable Lithium Anodes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Surface of Uncycled Lithium Foil
13.3 Surface of Lithium Coupled with Electrolytes
13.4 Cycling Efficiency of Lithium Anode
13.5 Morphology of Deposited Lithium
13.6 The Amount of Dead Lithium and Cell Performance
13.7 Improvement in the Cycling Efficiency of a Lithium Anode
13.8 Safety of Rechargeable Lithium Metal Cells
13.9 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Chapter 14: Lithium Alloy Anodes
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Problems with the Rechargeability of Elemental Electrodes
14.3 Lithium Alloys as an Alternative
14.4 Alloys Formed In situ from Convertible Oxides
14.5 Thermodynamic Basis for Electrode Potentials and Capacities under Conditions in which Complete Equilibrium can be Assumed
14.6 Crystallographic Aspects and the Possibility of Selective Equilibrium
14.7 Kinetic Aspects
14.8 Examples of Lithium Alloy Systems
14.9 Lithium Alloys at Lower Temperatures
14.10 The Mixed-Conductor Matrix Concept
14.11 Solid Electrolyte Matrix Electrode Structures
14.12 What about the Future?
References
Further Reading
Chapter 15: Lithiated Carbons
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Graphitic and Nongraphitic Carbons
15.3 Lithiated Carbons vs Competing Anode Materials
15.4 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Chapter 16: The Anode/Electrolyte Interface
16.1 Introduction
16.2 SEI Formation, Chemical Composition, and Morphology
16.3 SEI Formation on Carbonaceous Electrodes
16.4 Models for SEI Electrodes
16.5 Summary and Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Chapter 17: Liquid Nonaqueous Electrolytes
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Components of the Liquid Electrolyte
17.3 Intrinsic Properties
17.4 Bulk Properties
17.5 Additives
References
Chapter 18: Polymer Electrolytes
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Solvent-Free Polymer Electrolytes
18.3 Hybrid Electrolytes
18.4 Looking to the Future
References
Further Reading
Chapter 19: Solid Electrolytes
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Fundamental Aspects of Solid Electrolytes
19.3 Applicable Solid Electrolytes for Batteries
19.4 Design Aspects of Solid Electrolytes
19.5 Preparation of Solid Electrolytes
19.6 Experimental Techniques for the Determination of the Properties of Solid Electrolytes
Acknowledgment
References
Further Reading
Chapter 20: Separators for Lithium-Ion Batteries
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Market
20.3 How a Battery Separator is Used in Cell Fabrication
20.4 Microporous Separator Materials
20.5 Gel Electrolyte Separators
20.6 Polymer Electrolytes
20.7 Characterization of Separators
20.8 Mathematical Modeling of Separators
20.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21: Materials for High-Temperature Batteries
21.1 Introduction
21.2 The ZEBRA System
21.3 The Sodium/Sulfur Battery
21.4 Components for High-Temperature Batteries
References
Further Reading
Part IV: New Emerging Technologies
Chapter 22: Metal–Air Batteries
22.1 General Characteristics
22.2 Air Electrode
22.3 Zinc–Air Batteries
22.4 Lithium–Air Batteries
22.5 Other–Air Batteries
22.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 23: Catalysts and Membranes for New Batteries
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Catalysts
23.3 Separators
23.4 Future Directions
References
Chapter 24: Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Polysulfide Shuttle and Capacity-Fading Mechanisms
24.3 Cell Configuration
24.4 Positive Electrode Materials
24.5 Electrolytes
24.6 Negative Electrode Materials
24.7 Conclusions and Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
Part V: Performance and Technology Development for Batteries
Chapter 25: Modeling and Simulation of Battery Systems
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Macroscopic Model
25.3 Aging Model
25.4 Stress Model
25.5 Abuse Model
25.6 Life Prediction Model
25.7 Other Battery Technologies
25.8 Summary and Outlook
Acknowledgments
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 26: Mechanics of Battery Cells and Materials
26.1 Mechanical Failure Analysis of Battery Cells and Materials: Significance and Challenges
26.2 Key Studies in the Mechanical Analysis of Battery Materials
26.3 Key Issues Remaining to be Addressed
26.4 Outlook for the Future
References
Chapter 27: Battery Safety and Abuse Tolerance
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Evaluation Techniques for Batteries and Battery Materials
27.3 Typical Failure Modes
27.4 Safety Devices
27.5 Discussion of Safety and Abuse Response for Battery Chemistries
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 28: Cathode Manufacturing for Lithium-Ion Batteries
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Electrode Manufacturing
28.3 Summary
References
Index
Related Titles
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The Editors
Dr.-Ing. Claus Daniel
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
MS6083
P.O. Box 2008
Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6083
USA
All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate.
Library of Congress Card No.: applied for
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek
The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at <http://dnb.d-nb.de>.
© 2011 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.
Print ISBN: 978-3-527-32695-2
ePub: 978-3-527-63719-5
mobi: 978-3-527-63721-8
oBook: 978-3-527-63718-8
eBook: 978-3-527-63720-1
Dedication: Jürgen O. Besenhard (1944–2006)
The first edition of the “Handbook of Battery Materials” was edited by Professor Jürgen Otto Besenhard. Jürgen Besenhard began his scientific career at the time, when the era of lithium batteries came up. With his strong background in chemistry and his outstanding ability to interpret and understand the complex phenomena behind the many exploratory research findings on lithium batteries in the late 1960s and early to mid 1970s, Jürgen Besenhard was able to attribute “performance” to material properties. His early work is evidence for this:
1. Understanding of reversible alkali metal ion intercalation into graphite anodes (J. Electroanal. Chem., 53 (1974) 329 and Carbon, 14 (1976) 111)
2. Understanding of reversible alkali metal ion insertion into oxide materials for cathodes (Mat. Res. Bull., 11 (1976) 83 and J. Power Sources, 1 (1976/1977) 267)
3. First reviews on lithium batteries (J. Electroanal. Chem., 68 (1976) 1 and J. Electroanal. Chem., 72 (1976) 1)
4. Preparation of lithium alloys with defined stoichiometry in organic electrolytes at ambient temperature (Electrochim. Acta, 20 (1975) 513).
Jürgen Besenhard's research interests were almost unlimited. After he received a Full Professorship at the University of Münster (Germany) in 1986 and especially after 1993, when he assumed the position as head of the Institute of Chemistry and Technology at Graz University of Technology in Austria, he expanded his activities to countless topics in the field of applied electrochemistry. But his favorite topic, “his dedication,” has always been “Battery Materials.”
Jürgen Otto Besenhard was an exceptional and devoted scientist and he leaves behind an enduring record of achievements. He was considered as a leading authority in the field of lithium battery materials. His works will always assure him a highly prominent position in the history of battery technology.
Prof. Besenhard was also a highly respected teacher inside and outside the university. Consequently, it was only natural that he edited a book, which attempted to give explanations, rather than only summarizing figures and facts. The “Handbook of Battery Materials” was one of Jürgen Otto Besenhard's favorite projects. He knew that materials are the key to batteries. It is the merit of Claus Daniel and the publisher Wiley, that this project will be continued.
May this new edition of the “Handbook of Battery Materials” be a useful guide into the complex and rapidly growing field of battery materials. Beyond that, it is my personal wish and hope that the readers of this book may also take the chance to review Prof. Besenhard's work. Jürgen Otto Besenhard has been truly one of the fathers of lithium batteries and lithium ion batteries.
Münster, Germany, July, 2011
Martin Winter
Preface to the Second Edition of the Handbook of Battery Materials
For Kijan and Stina
The language of experiment is more authoritative than any reasoning, facts can destroy our ratiocination – not vice versa.
Count Alessandro Volta, 1745–1827
Inventor of the Battery
You are looking at the second edition of the Handbook of Battery Materials. It has been 12 years since the first edition edited by Prof. Jürgen Besenhard was published.
This second edition is dedicated in memory of world renowned Prof. Jürgen Besenhard who was a pioneer in the field of electrochemical energy storage and lithium batteries. As a young scientist in the field of electrochemical energy storage, I am humbled to inherit this handbook from him.
Over the last decade, driven by consumer electronics, power tools, and recently automotive and renewable energy storage, electrochemical energy storage chemistries and devices have been developed at a never before seen pace. New chemistries have been discovered, and continued performance increases to established chemistries are under way. With these developments, we decided to update the handbook from 1999. The new edition is completely revised and expanded to almost double its original content.
Due to the fast pace of the market and very quick developments on large scale energy storage, we removed the chapter on Global Competition. It might be outdated by the time this book actually hits the shelves. Chapters from Parts I and II from the first edition on Fundamentals and General Aspects of Electrochemical Energy Storage, Practical Batteries, and Materials for Aqueous Electrolyte Batteries have been revised for the new edition to reflect the work in the past decade. Part III on Materials for Alkali Metal Batteries has been expanded in view of the many research efforts on lithium ion and other alkali metal ion batteries. In addition, we added new Parts IV on New Emerging Technologies and V on Performance and Technology Development with chapters on Metal Air, Catalysts, and Membranes, Sulfur, System Level Modeling, Mechanics of Battery Materials, and Electrode Manufacturing.
In our effort, we strongly held on to Prof. Besenhard's goal to “fill the gap” between fundamental electrochemistry and application of batteries in order to provide a “comprehensive source of detailed information” for “graduate or higher level” students and “those who are doing research in the field of materials for energy storage.”
I would like to thank all authors who contributed to this book; Craig Blue, Ray Boeman, and David Howell who made me apply my experience and knowledge from a different area to the field of electrochemical energy storage; and Nancy Dudney who continues to be a resourceful expert advisor to me.
Finally, I thank my wife Isabell and my family for the many sacrifices they make and support they give me in my daily work.
Oak Ridge, TN, July 2011
Claus Daniel
List of Contributors
Jörg H. Albering
Graz University of Technology
Institute for Chemical Technology of Inorganic Materials
Stremeyrgasse 16/III
8010 Graz
Austria
Marius Amereller
University of Regensburg
Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
Universitätsstr. 31
93053 Regensburg
Germany
Michel Armand
Université de Montréal
Département de Chimie
C.P. 6128
Succursale Centre-Ville
Montréal
Québec H3C 3J7
Canada
Josef Barthel
University of Regensburg
Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
Universitätsstr. 31
93053 Regensburg
Germany
Dietrich Berndt
Am Weissen Berg 3
61476 Kronberg
Germany
Jürgen Otto Besenhard †
Graz University of Technology of Inorganic Materials
Stremayrgasse 16/III
8010 Graz
Austria
Leo Binder
Graz University of Technology
Institute for Inorganic Chemistry
Stremayrgasse 9
8010 Graz
Austria
Peter Birke
Christian-Albrechts University
Technical Faculty
Chair for Sensors and
Solid State Ionics
Kaiserstr. 2
24143 Kiel
Germany
H. Böhm
AEG Anglo Batteries GmbH
Söfliger Str. 100
889077 Ulm
Germany
Werner Böhnstedt
Daramic Inc.
Erlengang 31
22844 Norderstedt
Germany
Peter G. Bruce
University of St. Andrews
School of Chemistry
North Haugh
St. Andrews, KY16 9ST
Scotland
Myoungdo Chung
Sakti3
Incorporated
Ann Arbor, MI
USA
Claus Daniel
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6083
USA
and
University of Tennessee
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Knoxville, TN 37996
USA
Daniel H. Doughty
Battery Safety Consulting Inc.
139 Big Horn Ridge Dr. NE
Albuquerque, NM 87122
USA
Josef Drobits
Technische Universität Wien
Institut für Technische Elektrochemie
Getreidemarkt 9/158
1060 Wien
Austria
Christoph Fabjan
Technische Universität Wien
Institut für Technische Elektrochemie
Getreidemarkt 9/158
1060 Wien
Austria
Wujun Fu
Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge
TN 37831
USA
Nobuhiro Furukawa
Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd. Electrochemistry Department
New Materials Research Center
1-18-3 Hashiridani
Hirahata City
Osaka 573-8534
Japan
Diane Golodnitsky
Tel Aviv University
Department of Chemistry
Tel Aviv 69978
Israel
Heiner Jakob Gores
University of Regensburg
Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
Universitätsstr. 31
93053 Regensburg
Germany
and
WWU Münster (Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster)
MEET - Münster Electrochemical Energy Technology
Corrensstraße 46
48149 Münster
Germany
Fiona Gray
University of St Andrews
School of Chemistry
The Purdie Building
North Haugh
St Andrews
Fife KY16 9ST
UK
Robert Hartl
University of Regensburg
Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
Universitätsstr. 31
93053 Regensburg
Germany
Robert A. Huggins
Christian-Albrechts-University
Kaiserstr. 2
24143 Kiel
Germany
HyonCheol Kim
Sakti3
1490 Eisenhower Place
Building 4
Ann Arbor, MI 48108
Kimio Kinoshita
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Environmental Energy Technology
Berkeley, CA 94720
USA
Akiya Kozawa
ITE Battery Research Institute
39 Youke, Ukino
Chiaki-cho
Ichinomiyashi
Aichi-ken 491
Japan
Jianlin Li
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Materials Science and Technology Division
Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6083
USA
Chengdu Liang
Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
USA
Zengcai Liu
Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
USA
Arumugam Manthiram
The University of Texas at Austin
Materials Science and Engineering Program
Austin, TX 78712
USA
Alexander Maurer
University of Regensburg
Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
Universitätsstr. 31
93053 Regensburg
Germany
James McBreen
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Department of Applied Science
Upton, NY 1973
USA
Dominik Moosbauer
University of Regensburg
Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
Universitätsstr. 31
93053 Regensburg
Germany
and
Gamry Instruments, Inc.
734 Louis Drive
Warminster, PA 18974
USA
Partha P. Mukherjee
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Computer Science and Mathematics Division
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
USA
Theivanayagam Muraliganth
The University of Texas at Austin
Materials Science and Engineering Program
Austin, TX 78712
USA
Chaitanya K. Narula
University of Tennessee
Materials Science and Technology Division
Physical Chemistry of Materials
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
USA
and
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
Knoxville, TN 37966
USA
Koji Nishio
Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd.
Electrochemistry Department
New Materials Research Center
1-18-3 Hashiridani
Hirahata City
Osaka 573-8534
Japan
Sreekanth Pannala
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Computer Science and Mathematics Division
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
USA
Emanuel Peled
Tel Aviv University
Department of Chemistry
Tel Aviv 69978
Israel
Jack Penciner
Tel Aviv University
Department of Chemistry
Tel Aviv 69978
Israel
Karsten Pinkwart
Fraunhofer Institut für
Chemische Technologie (ICT)
Angewandte Elektrochemie
Josef-von-Fraunhofer-Str. 7
76327 Pfinztal
Germany
James J. Reilly
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Department of Sustainable Energy
Technologies
Upton, NY 11973
USA
Ann Marie Sastry
Sakti3
1490 Eisenhower Place
Building 4
Ann Arbor, MI 48108
and
University of Michigan
Departments of Mechanical
Biomedical and Materials
Science and Engineering
2300 Hayward Street
Ann Arbor, MI 48109
USA
Robert Spotnitz
Battery Design LLC
2277 Delucchi Drive
Pleasanton, CA 94588
USA
Shin-ichi Tobishima
Gunma University
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
Faculty of Engineering
1-5-1 Tenjin-cho
Kiryu, Gunma, 376-8515
Japan
Jens Tübke
Fraunhofer Institut für
Chemische Technologie
Angewandte Elektrochemie
Josef-von-Fraunhofer-Str. 7
76327 Pfinztal
Germany
John A. Turner
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Computer Science and Mathematics Division
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
USA
Chia-Wei Wang
Sakti3
1490 Eisenhower Place
Building 4
Ann Arbor, MI 48108
Werner Weppner
Christian-Albrechts University
Technical Faculty
Chair for Sensors and Solid State Ionics
Kaiserstr. 2
24143 Kiel
Germany
Martin Winter
Graz University of Technology of Inorganic Materials
Stremayrgasse 16/III
8010 Graz
Austria
David L. Wood III
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Materials Science and
Technology Division
Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6083
USA
Jun-ichi Yamaki
Kyushu University
Institute for Materials Chemistry and Engineering
6-1 Kasuga-koen
Kasuka-shi 816-8508
Japan
Kohei Yamamoto
Fuji Electrochemical Co.
Washizu, Kosai-shi
Shizuoka-ken 431
Japan
Masaki Yoshio
Saga University
Faculty of Science and Engineering
Department of Applied Chemistry
1 Honjo
Saga 8408502
Japan
Ji-Guang Zhang
Pacific Northwest
National Laboratory
Energy and Environment Directory
Richland, WA 99352
USA
X. Gregory Zhang
Independent consultant
3 Weatherell Street
Ontario M6S 1S6
Canada
Xiangchun Zhang
Sakti3
Incorporated
Ann Arbor, MI
USA
Sandra Zugmann
University of Regensburg
Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
Universitätsstr. 31
93053 Regensburg
Germany
Part I
FUNDAMENTALS AND GENERAL ASPECTS OF ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE
1
Thermodynamics and Mechanistics
Karsten Pinkwart and Jens Tübke
1.1 Electrochemical Power Sources
Electrochemical power sources convert chemical energy into electrical energy (see Figure 1.1). At least two reaction partners undergo a chemical process during this operation. The energy of this reaction is available as electric current at a defined voltage and time [1].
Figure 1.1 Chemical and electrical energy conversion and possibilities of storage.
Electrochemical power sources differ from others such as thermal power plants in the fact that the energy conversion occurs without any intermediate steps; for example, in the case of thermal power plants, fuel is first converted into thermal energy (in furnaces or combustion chambers), then into mechanical energy, and finally into electric power by means of generators. In the case of electrochemical power sources, this multistep process is replaced by one step only. As a consequence, electrochemical systems show some advantages such as high energy efficiency.
The existing types of electrochemical storage systems vary according to the nature of the chemical reaction, structural features, and design. This reflects the large number of possible applications.
The simplest system consists of one electrochemical cell – the so-called galvanic element [1]. This supplies a comparatively low cell voltage of 0.5–5 V. To obtain a higher voltage the cell can be connected in series with others, and for a higher capacity it is necessary to link them in parallel. In both cases the resulting ensemble is called a battery.
Depending on the principle of operation, cells are classified as follows:
1.Primary cells are nonrechargeable cells in which the electrochemical reaction is irreversible. They contain only a fixed amount of the reacting compounds and can be discharged only once. The reacting compounds are consumed by discharging, and the cell cannot be used again. A well-known example of a primary cell is the Daniell element (), consisting of zinc and copper as the electrode materials.
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Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!
Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!