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The first and only comprehensive reference/solutions manual for managing food safety in low-moisture foods The first book devoted to an increasingly critical public health issue, Control of Salmonella and Other Bacterial Pathogens in Low-Moisture Foods reviews the current state of the science on the prevalence and persistence of bacterial pathogens in low-moisture foods and describes proven techniques for preventing food contamination for manufacturers who produce those foods. Many pathogens, such as Salmonella, due to their enhanced thermal resistance in dry environments, can survive the drying process and may persist for prolonged periods in low-moisture foods, especially when stored in refrigerated environments. Bacterial contamination of low-moisture foods, such as peanut butter, present a vexing challenge to food safety, and especially now, in the wake of widely publicized food safety related events, food processors urgently need up-to-date, practical information on proven measures for containing the risk of contamination. While much has been written on the subject, until now it was scattered throughout the world literature in scientific and industry journals. The need for a comprehensive treatment of the subject has never been greater, and now this book satisfies that need. * Discusses a wide variety of foods and evaluates multiple processing platforms from the standpoint of process validation of all food safety objectives for finished food products * Takes a practical approach integrating the latest scientific and technological advances in a handy working resource * Presents all known sources and risk factors for pathogenic bacteria of concern in the manufacturing environment for low-moisture/water activity products * Characterizes the persistence and thermal resistance of bacterial pathogens in both the environment and most low-moisture food products Control of Salmonella and Other Bacterial Pathogens in Low-Moisture Foods is a much-needed resource for food microbiologists and food industry scientists, as well as managers and executives in companies that produce and use low-moisture foods. It also belongs on the reference shelves of food safety regulatory agencies worldwide.
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Cover
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of Low-Moisture Foods (LMF) and Water Activity Controlled Foods
1.3
Salmonella
as a Continuing Challenge and Ongoing Problem in Low-Moisture Foods
1.4 Foodborne Outbreaks of
Salmonella
spp. and Other Implicated Microbial Pathogens in Low-Moisture Foods
1.5 Major Safety Concerns in Low-Moisture Foods
1.6 Content and Brief Book Chapter Review
1.7 Goal of the Book
1.8 How to Use the Book
References
Chapter 2: Regulatory Requirements for Low-Moisture Foods – The New Preventive Controls Landscape (FSMA)
2.1 Introduction
2.2 FSMA Sanitation and cGMPs
2.3 FSMA Preventive Controls
2.4 Process Controls
2.5 Sanitation Controls
2.6 Supplier Controls
2.7 Summary of Requirements for Low-Moisture FSMA Regulated Products
References
Chapter 3: Potential Sources and Risk Factors
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Raw Ingredients Control and Handling
3.3 Pest Control
3.4 Salmonella Harborage in the Facility
3.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Persistence of Salmonella and Other Bacterial Pathogens in Low-Moisture Foods
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Factors Affecting Survival of
Salmonella
and Other Pathogens in Low-Moisture Foods
4.3 Recovery of
Salmonella
Cells Stressed by Low-Moisture Foods
4.4 Mechanism of
Salmonella
Survival in Food Product and Processing Environment
4.5 Other Vegetative Pathogens
4.6 Summary
References
Chapter 5: Best Industry Practices to Control Salmonella in Low-Moisture Foods
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sanitation Practices
5.3 Current Good Manufacturing Practice
References
Chapter 6: Heat Resistance of Salmonella and Other Bacterial Pathogens in Low-Moisture Foods
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Factors Affecting Heat Resistance of Foodborne Pathogens
6.3 Use of Published Heat Resistance Data to Establish Lethal Process Lethality in Low-Moisture Foods
6.4 Summary
References
Chapter 7: Validation Requirements in Heat-Processed Low-Moisture Foods
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Definitions
7.3 Tasks of Validation
7.4 Task 1: Assemble a Validation Team
7.5 Task 2: Identify the Hazard to be Controlled Through Hazard Analysis
7.6 Task 3: Identify a Validation Approach for the Control Measure
7.7 Task 4: Conduct the In-Production Validation
7.8 Task 5: Write the Results of the Validation in a Validation Report
7.10 Task 6: Implement the Control Measure, Monitors and Record Review
7.11 Task 7: Verify that the Control Measure is Operating as Intended
7.12 Task 8: Re-evaluate the Control Measure Periodically
7.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Test Methods for Salmonella in Low-Moisture Foods
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sampling Plans
8.3 Types of Methods
8.4 Matrices Testing Challenges
8.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Techniques to Determine Thermal Inactivation Kinetics for Pathogenic Bacteria and their Surrogate Organisms in Low-Moisture Foods
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Kinetics of Microbial Destruction
9.3 Experimental Design and Execution
References
Chapter 10: Modeling and Statistical Issues Related to Salmonella in Low Water Activity Foods
10.1 An Introduction to Modeling
Salmonella
in Low Water Activity Foods
10.2 Developing a Predictive Model for Salmonella in Low Water Activity Foods
10.3 Model Validation
10.4 Models in Risk Assessment
10.5 Summary
References
Chapter 11: Spoilage Microorganisms in Low-Moisture Foods
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Microorganisms Associated with the Spoilage of Low-Moisture Foods
11.3 Factors Influencing Heat Resistance of Fungi in Low-Moisture Foods
11.4 Heat Resistance of Fungi in Low-Moisture Foods
11.5 Heat Resistance of Yeasts in Low-Moisture Foods
11.6 Preventing and Reducing Spoilage in Low-Moisture Foods
11.7 Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Chapter 3: Potential Sources and Risk Factors
Figure 3.1 Facility program elements that prevent pathogen infiltration. (Concept printed with permission from Joe Stout.)
Chapter 7: Validation Requirements in Heat-Processed Low-Moisture Foods
Figure 7.1 Lifecycle approach to validation.
Chapter 8: Test Methods for Salmonella in Low-Moisture Foods
Figure 8.1 Zone definitions.
Chapter 9: Techniques to Determine Thermal Inactivation Kinetics for Pathogenic Bacteria and their Surrogate Organisms in Low-Moisture Foods
Figure 9.1 Description of the D-value.
Figure 9.2 Description of the z-value.
Figure 9.3 Example of TDT retorts.
Figure 9.4 Packaging material used to contain samples for TDT studies (TDT can, glass tube, plastic pouch).
Figure 9.5 Example of a wire thermocouple that may be used to measure product temperature during a TDT study.
Figure 9.6 Example of survival curves for the average population of the target organism recovered from artificially-inoculated product.
Figure 9.7 Thermal resistance curve calculated from the D-values described in Table 9.3. The z-value is calculated based upon the slope of the linear regression line.
Figure 9.8 Examples of (a) an upward concavity survival curve and (b) a downward concavity survival curve.
Chapter 10: Modeling and Statistical Issues Related to Salmonella in Low Water Activity Foods
Figure 10.1 Survival of
Salmonella
on raw peanuts at (○) −24, (Δ) 4, and (□) 22°C for 365 days (Brar
et al
. (2015), reprinted with permission of the authors).
Figure 10.2 Flow diagram for roasted peanuts process.
Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview
Table 1.1
Salmonella
serotypes implicated with outbreaks in low-moisture foods.
Table 1.2 Selected international outbreaks of
Salmonella
spp. during the period 1970–2014 linked with low-moisture food products.
Table 1.3 Selected international outbreaks between 2007 and 2015 of food pathogens other than
Salmonella
spp. associated with low-moisture food products.
Table 1.4 Characteristics of bacterial and viral pathogens of concern in low-moisture food.
Chapter 3: Potential Sources and Risk Factors
Table 3.1 Examples of web resources for pest control.
Table 3.2 List of recent product recalls caused by inadequate cleaning and sanitation practices (2007–2015).
Chapter 4: Persistence of Salmonella and Other Bacterial Pathogens in Low-Moisture Foods
Table 4.1 Examples of survival of foodborne pathogens in low water activity foods and ingredients.
Chapter 5: Best Industry Practices to Control Salmonella in Low-Moisture Foods
Table 5.1 Sanitizers used in low-moisture food processing facilities.
Chapter 6: Heat Resistance of Salmonella and Other Bacterial Pathogens in Low-Moisture Foods
Table 6.1 Example of comparative analysis for target food using (mock) D-value.
Table 6.2 Heat resistance of
Salmonella
Typhimurium in model system at different water activities (a
w
).
Table 6.3 Thermal resistance (D- and z-values) of
Salmonella
spp. in chocolate and chocolate products (table adopted in part from Podolak
et al
., 2010 and Doyle and Mazzotta, 2000).
Table 6.4 D-values at 60°C for
Listeria monocytogenes
in chocolate milk and chocolate-peanut spread.
a
Table 6.5 Thermal resistance (D- and z-values) of
Salmonella
spp. in peanut butter at different temperatures based on the first-order kinetics.
Table 6.6 Minimum time to achieve 5- and 7-log reduction of
Salmonella
spp. in peanut butter at different temperatures, based on the Weibull model.
Table 6.7 Influence of milk solids concentration on the heat resistance
of Escherichia coli
O104:H7,
Salmonella
Typhimurium and
Salmonella
Alachua
a
grown in Trypticase soy broth at 37°C.
Table 6.8 Thermal resistance (D- and z-values) of
Salmonella
Tennessee in cereals, cookies and crackers at different water activity and temperatures based on the thermal death time (TDT) test.
a, b
Table 6.9 Heat resistance of
Salmonella
Weltevreden in wheat flour influenced by water activity.
a
Chapter 7: Validation Requirements in Heat-Processed Low-Moisture Foods
Table 7.1 Limitations of water activity and pH for growth of several foodborne pathogens
a
based on interaction of product pH and a
w
(Table 2 of NACMCF, 2010)
b
.
Table 7.2 Time–temperature combinations for dry roasting almonds (from the Almond Board of California Guidelines for Validation of Dry Roasting Processes, ABC, 2007b).
Table 7.3 Pasteurization temperature versus time for milk or milk products (from Mandatory pasteurization for all milk and milk products in final package form intended for direct human consumption, PMO (FDA, 2013b) and US CFR (1992)
a
.
Table 7.4 Examples of US government regulations performance standards.
Table 7.5 Examples of US government guidance performance standards.
Table 7.6 Examples of published industry processing guidelines.
Table 7.7 Example pathogen modeling programs.
Table 7.8 Examples of validation parameters to confirm in production (from published industry processing guidelines).
Chapter 8: Test Methods for Salmonella in Low-Moisture Foods
Table 8.1
Salmonella
food categories.
Chapter 9: Techniques to Determine Thermal Inactivation Kinetics for Pathogenic Bacteria and their Surrogate Organisms in Low-Moisture Foods
Table 9.1 Summary of LMF inoculation methods published in the scientific literature and associated LMF product applications.
Table 9.2 Treatment temperature and times evaluated in an example final TDT study.
Table 9.3 Measured D-value of the target organism at each temperature based upon the slope of the survival curves in Figure 9.6.
Table 9.4 Collected temperature of the samples heat treated at 140°F (60°C) for up to four minutes.
Chapter 10: Modeling and Statistical Issues Related to Salmonella in Low Water Activity Foods
Table 10.1 Statistical parameter fit results of the log-linear, Weibull and double Weibull models for
Salmonella
survival on raw peanuts, where day 7 was considered time 0, at −24, 4, and 22°C by adjusted R
2
(R
2
adj)
,
Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Akaike Information Criterion (AIC). Best statistical parameter values are shown in bold.
Table 10.2
δ
and
ρ
values of the Weibull model fits for
Salmonella
survival on raw peanuts at −24, 4, and 22°C.
Table 10.3 Different criteria for definitions of fail-safe, accurate, and fail-dangerous model predictions as proposed by Mohr
et al
. (2015) based on the values of the residual (observed minus predicted value).
Chapter 11: Spoilage Microorganisms in Low-Moisture Foods
Table 11.1 Minimal water activities required for growth of foodborne fungi associated with low water activity foods (partially adapted from Samson
et al
., 2010).
Table 11.2 D-values at 55°C for 10-day old conidiospores of
A
.
flavus
and
A
.
parasiticus
produced at Moyer’s medium containing various amounts of sodium chloride (adapted from Doyle and Marth, 1975b).
Table 11.3 D-values at 55°C for 10-day old conidiospores of
A
.
flavus
and
A
.
parasiticus
produced at Moyer’s medium containing various amounts of sucrose (adopted from Doyle and Marth, 1975b).
Table 11.4 Thermal resistance (D-values) of fungi in low water activity foods.
Table 11.5 Thermal resistance (D- and z-values) of vegetative cells of yeast in low water activity foods.
Table 11.6 Fungal species associated with spoilage of low-moisture food products.
a
Edited by
Richard Podolak
Grocery Manufacturers Association, Washington DC, USA
Darryl G. Black
US Food and Drug Administration, Bedford Park, USA
This edition first published 2017 © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Podolak, Richard, editor. | Black, Darryl G., editor.
Title: Control of salmonella and other bacterial pathogens in low-moisture foods / [edited by] Richard Podolak, Grocery Manufacturers Association, Darryl G. Black, Grocery Manufacturers Association.
Description: Chichester, West Sussex, UK ; Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2017011192 (print) | LCCN 2017013125 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119071068 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119071075 (epub) | ISBN 9781119071082 (cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Food-Microbiology. | Food-Water activity. | Food industry and trade. | BISAC: TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING / Food Science.
Classification: LCC QR115 (ebook) | LCC QR115 .P63 2018 (print) | DDC 579/.16-dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017011192
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Images: (Background) © Todd Arena/Gettyimages; Circles: From left to right) © Shebeko/Shutterstock; © Andrei Kuzmik/Shutterstock; © Lightspring/Shutterstock; © cre8tive_studios/Gettyimages; © kickers/Gettyimages
Shirin J. Abd
Research Microbiologist, Food Safety
Covance Laboratories, Inc.
Livermore, CA
USA
David Anderson†
Senior Science Advisor
Grocery Manufacturers Association
Washington, DC
USA
Nathan Anderson
Agricultural Engineer
US Food and Drug Administration
NCFST/FDA Division of Food
Processing Science and Technology
Bedford Park, IL
USA
Jeffrey T. Barach
Principal
Barach Enterprises, LLC
Oakton, VA
USA
Darryl G. Black
Associate Director of Research
Division of Food Processing Science and Technology
US Food and Drug Administration
Bedford Park, IL
USA
Michelle Danyluk
Assistant Professor
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition
Citrus Research and Education Center
University of Florida
Lake Alfred, FL
USA
George E. Dunaif
President
ToxPro Solutions, LLC
Lake Junaluska, NC
USA
Elena Enache
Senior Scientist
Grocery Manufacturers Association
Washington, DC
USA
Sofia M. Santillana Farakos
Research Fellow
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, OAO/Division of Risk and Decision Analysis
US Food and Drug Administration
College Park, MD
USA
Carrie M.H. Ferstl
Director, Food Safety
Covance Laboratories, Inc.
Livermore, CA
USA
Elizabeth M. Grasso-Kelley
Assistant Professor
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition/Institute for Food Safety and Health
Illinois Institute of Technology
Bedford Park, IL
USA
Linda J. Harris
Department Chair, Specialist in Cooperative Extension
Department of Food Science and Technology
University of California
Davis, CA
USA
Melinda Hayman
Consumer Safety Officer
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
Office of Food Safety
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
College Park, MD
USA
Ai Kataoka
Scientist
Grocery Manufacturers Association
Washington, DC
USA
Shaunti Luce
Innovation &Technical Manager
Clif Bar & Company
Emeryville, CA
USA
Lisa Lucore
Shearer’s Foods, Inc.
Massillon, OH
USA
Bradley P. Marks
Professor
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI
USA
Wilfredo Ocasio
Vice President, Microbiology and Process Research
Covance Laboratories, Inc.
Livermore, CA
USA
Richard Podolak
Senior Scientist
Grocery Manufacturers Association
Washington, DC
USA
Régis Pouillot
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, OAO/Division of Risk and Decision Analysis
US Food and Drug Administration
College Park, MD
USA
Donald Schaffner
Professor
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
New Brunswick, NJ
USA